• Drugs that stimulate insulin secretion: sulfonylureas (acetohexamide, chlorpropamide, gliclazide, glipizide, glyburide, tolazamide, tolbutamide), meglitinide analogs (meglitinide, repaglinide), D-phenylalanine derivative (nateglinide). • Drugs that primarily lower glucose levels by their actions on the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue: biguanide (metformin), thiazolidinediones (pioglitazone, rosiglitazone). • Drugs that principally affect glucose absorption: α-glucosidase inhibitors (acarbose, miglitol, voglibose). • Drugs that mimic incretin effect GLP-1 receptor agonists: exenatide, liraglutide, albiglutide, dulaglutide DPP-4 inhibitors: sitagliptin, saxagliptin, vildagliptin, linagliptin • SGLT2 inhibitor (dapagliflozin, canagliflozin, empagliflozin). • Others: bromocriptine, colesevelam, pramlintide (islet amyloid polypeptide analog). • Insulin: indicated for hyperglycemia unresponsive to diet and oral hypoglycemic agents. • Preprandial rapid-acting insulin plus basal insulin replacement with an intermediate- or long-acting insulin can be used to attain acceptable control of blood glucose. • Inhaled insulin (technosphere insulin, Afrezza) is rapidly absorbed with maximum effect at 1 hour, declining to baseline by about 3 hours; most common adverse reaction is cough affecting 27% of subjects; small decrease in pulmonary function (FEV1); contraindicated in smokers and patients with chronic lung disease.